Soumak Weaving Explained: The Art Between Kilims and Pile Rugs

by Zeeshan Tariq October 31, 2026

There is something fascinating about a Soumak rug. From the front, its surface can resemble an intricate embroidered textile, with raised lines, sharply defined geometric motifs and an almost braided appearance. Turn it over, however, and an entirely different structure becomes visible: threads wrapping around the foundation, creating a textured reverse that reveals the extraordinary technique behind the design.

Soumak occupies an interesting place in the world of handmade rugs. It is neither a conventional hand-knotted pile carpet nor a simple flatwoven kilim. Instead, it is created through a specialised technique known as weft wrapping, in which coloured yarns are wrapped around the warp threads to create the pattern.

This method produces a distinctive combination of strength, texture and decorative detail. Historically associated with the Caucasus, Persia and neighbouring weaving regions, Soumak has been used not only for rugs but also for saddlebags, storage bags, bedding covers and other household textiles.

At RugWeave, we find Soumak particularly interesting because it demonstrates how many different ways there are to transform wool and thread into a work of textile art. Understanding its construction reveals why these pieces are so different from ordinary kilims and hand-knotted carpets.

What Is Soumak Weaving?

Soumak, also spelled Sumak, Soumakh, Sumac or Soumac, is a traditional flatweaving technique that uses supplementary weft threads wrapped around the warp to create a patterned surface.

Unlike a conventional hand-knotted rug, Soumak does not use individual pile knots to produce its surface. Unlike a basic kilim, it does not rely solely on the interlacing of coloured weft threads.

Instead, the weaver wraps the decorative yarn around selected warp threads, following a sequence that creates a distinctive corded or embroidered appearance.

The resulting textile is generally thicker and more textured than a simple tapestry-woven kilim. Its front usually appears relatively smooth and clearly patterned, while the reverse can reveal exposed yarn floats, loose ends and the underlying construction.

Soumak is therefore best understood as a specialised form of flatwoven textile construction rather than as another variety of knotted carpet.

The History of Soumak Weaving

Ancient origins of a remarkable technique

The history of Soumak weaving reaches far back into the history of textile production.

The exact place where the technique was first developed is not known. However, the Getty Research Institute identifies Soumak as one of the oldest known weft-wrapping techniques, with evidence found among charred textile fragments excavated at Gordion, near present-day Ankara in Turkey, dating to the seventh century BCE.

This is important archaeological evidence, although it does not establish Gordion as the birthplace of Soumak. It demonstrates that sophisticated forms of wrapped-weft weaving were already being practised in the ancient world.

Over the centuries, the technique became associated with a number of weaving cultures across the Caucasus, Persia and neighbouring regions.

The Caucasus and the Shirvan tradition

The Caucasus is particularly important in the history of Soumak textiles.

The historic Shirvan region, located in present-day Azerbaijan, developed a reputation for finely woven carpets and flatwoven textiles. Soumak pieces from this broader region are admired for their strong geometry, repeated patterns and distinctive surface texture.

The name Soumak is often associated with Shemakha, historically known as one of the important towns of Shirvan. The exact linguistic origin of the word is not completely settled, but the association with this Caucasian weaving region has become established in carpet terminology.

The technique itself is much broader than the place name. Today, Soumak refers to a method of weaving used across different regions rather than proving that a particular textile came from Shemakha.

Caucasian Soumaks often feature diamonds, hooked motifs, stepped geometric forms, stars and stylised animals. Some historical designs are interpreted in connection with protection, fertility, prosperity and tribal identity, although the meaning of individual motifs should be approached carefully.

Soumak among Persian and Kurdish weaving communities

Soumak weaving also became part of the broader Persian textile tradition.

In northwestern Iran, communities such as the Shahsevan developed sophisticated weaving traditions that included Soumak textiles. Their work was not limited to carpets. They produced saddlebags, bedding bags and other portable household textiles.

The western Iranian Bakhtiari weaving tradition also included Soumak techniques. Historical examples demonstrate how Soumak could be combined with flatweaving and even knotted pile in different parts of a single textile.

This is particularly fascinating because it reveals that traditional weavers did not necessarily restrict themselves to one technique. They selected different construction methods according to the function of each part of an object.

For example, a bag might have a Soumak-woven body for durability and decorative detail, a different weave on the reverse and a knotted pile section in an area exposed to greater wear.

Soumak as a functional textile

Before Soumak became widely appreciated as a decorative floor covering, it had many practical uses.

Nomadic and village communities required textiles that could be used for transporting belongings, storing food and carrying household goods.

Several traditional objects were made using Soumak:

Khorjin: Double saddlebags used for carrying possessions during travel.
Mafrash: Rectangular bedding and storage bags used to transport blankets and household textiles.
Flour bags: Woven containers designed to carry and store flour.
Salt bags: Smaller containers used to carry salt, including for livestock.
Saddle and animal equipment: Textiles designed to cover, protect or carry objects.

These objects demonstrate that Soumak was not created purely for decoration. Its structure offered a useful combination of thickness, patterned surfaces and practical strength.

Over time, traditional Soumak designs also became appreciated as independent rugs and collectible textiles.

How Is a Soumak Rug Made?

To understand Soumak, it helps to first understand the basic structure of a woven textile.

Three elements are particularly important:

Warp: These are the threads running lengthwise through the textile. They are stretched onto the loom and form its foundation.

Ground weft: These are the horizontal foundation threads that pass across the warp and help secure the textile.

Supplementary pattern weft: This is the coloured yarn used to create the Soumak design. Instead of simply passing over and under the warp like a conventional weft, it wraps around selected warp threads.

The relationship between these elements produces Soumak's characteristic surface.

Step 1: Preparing the wool

Wool is one of the most traditional materials used in Soumak textiles.

The wool is cleaned, prepared and spun into yarn. The thickness of the yarn influences the final appearance of the woven pattern.

Handspun wool is particularly valued in traditional tribal textiles because it can produce subtle variations in thickness and texture.

The yarn is then dyed according to the intended design. Historical and traditional examples may use natural dyes, while other textiles may use different dye technologies. The presence of a rich red or blue colour alone does not prove that a natural dye was used.

Step 2: Preparing the loom

The warp threads are arranged vertically on the loom and maintained under tension.

The spacing between the warp threads influences the structure and appearance of the finished textile.

The weaver must maintain consistent tension as the Soumak pattern develops, ensuring that the textile remains balanced and that its dimensions do not distort excessively.

Step 3: Creating the ground structure

In many Soumak constructions, a ground weft is passed through the warp to create a supporting foundation.

The decorative Soumak weft is then wrapped around selected warp threads.

The ground weft may be hidden beneath the decorative wrapping, but it plays an important role in the strength and stability of the textile.

Some simpler forms of weft wrapping can also be executed without a separate ground weft.

Step 4: Wrapping the supplementary weft

This is the defining stage of Soumak weaving.

The weaver takes a coloured yarn and wraps it around a selected sequence of warp threads. The direction and number of threads covered determine the texture and pattern.

One common arrangement is to take the decorative weft over two warp threads and return it under one. This is known as a 2/1 wrapping sequence.

Another arrangement may pass over four warp threads and return under two, known as a 4/2 sequence.

The process is repeated across the areas required by the design.

By changing the colours, directions and wrapping sequences, the weaver creates geometric shapes, decorative outlines and more complex compositions.

Step 5: Beating and securing the rows

As the pattern develops, the weaver uses a comb or beater to bring the rows together and maintain the required tension.

The combination of foundation weft and wrapped decorative weft creates a relatively thick and compact textile.

This is one reason Soumak has a more textured character than many simple flatwoven kilims.

Step 6: Finishing the textile

Once weaving is complete, the edges and ends are finished.

The reverse may retain exposed sections of the decorative weft, creating a rougher or more irregular appearance than the front.

The textile is then finished according to its intended use. A rug, a storage bag and a saddle textile may have different edge treatments, closures and reinforcement.

The Different Types and Variations of Soumak Weaving

Soumak is not a single rigid technique. Weavers have developed variations in how the supplementary weft is wrapped, how the colours are arranged and how the pattern interacts with the foundation.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art describes several variations, including plain Soumak, countered Soumak and different directions of weft wrapping.

1. Plain Soumak

Plain Soumak is one of the most familiar forms.

The decorative weft is wrapped around the warp threads in a consistent direction. The repeated wrapping creates a slightly raised, diagonal or corded appearance.

This is the form commonly associated with the characteristic Soumak surface.

2. Countered Soumak

In countered Soumak, the direction of the wrapping changes to create a different surface effect.

The resulting pattern can resemble a herringbone structure, with the directional changes producing additional texture.

This technique adds another layer of visual complexity to the textile.

3. Horizontal, vertical and diagonal wrapping

Soumak wrapping does not have to follow a single direction.

Depending on the design, the supplementary weft can be arranged horizontally, vertically or diagonally around the warp threads.

The direction affects the appearance of the pattern and how different areas connect.

This flexibility allows the weaver to produce geometric compositions with sharply defined outlines.

4. Discontinuous or brocaded Soumak

Many Soumak patterns are created using discontinuous supplementary wefts.

This means that the weaver works on a particular area of the design before moving to another section, rather than carrying the decorative yarn continuously across the entire width.

Different coloured yarns can therefore create individual motifs and sections of a larger pattern.

5. Soumak combined with other weaving techniques

Some traditional textiles combine Soumak with other forms of weaving.

The Metropolitan Museum documents historical Shahsevan and Bakhtiari textiles that combine Soumak wrapping with plain-weave sections, slit tapestry weaving and even knotted pile.

This is a fascinating aspect of the craft.

A textile might have a Soumak-patterned front, a different flatwoven structure on the reverse and knotted pile reinforcement at the edges or areas of greater wear.

These combinations demonstrate the technical knowledge of the weavers and their ability to select the right construction for different functional requirements.

Does Soumak Use Knots?

This is one of the most important distinctions to understand.

Soumak does not use conventional pile knots.

In a hand-knotted carpet, the yarn is tied around the warp threads to create a raised pile. The two most widely discussed knot structures are:

Persian or Senneh knot: An asymmetrical knot used in many Persian carpet traditions.
Turkish or Ghiordes knot: A symmetrical knot found in Turkish, Caucasian and other carpet traditions.

These knots form the pile of the carpet.

Soumak is different. Its decorative yarn is wrapped around the warp threads rather than tied into individual pile knots.

The technique is sometimes described as embroidery-like because the wrapped wefts create a raised pattern on the surface. However, it remains a woven structure, not embroidery or conventional knotting.

This also means that knot density or KPSI is not the appropriate way to describe the fineness of a Soumak textile. The relevant characteristics are the tightness of the wrapping, the spacing of the warps, the yarn quality, the precision of the pattern and the overall workmanship.

Soumak vs Kilim vs Hand-Knotted Rugs

Soumak is often grouped with kilims because both belong to the broad family of flatwoven textiles. However, the construction of the two is quite different.

Feature	Soumak	Kilim	Hand-knotted rug
Construction	Supplementary weft wrapping	Interlaced warp and weft	Individual pile knots
Pile	No conventional pile	No conventional pile	Raised pile
Surface	Textured, corded or embroidered appearance	Generally flat	Raised and often plush
Reverse	Often shows exposed weft floats or loose ends	Usually flatter, depending on technique	Shows the structure of the knots
Pattern formation	Wrapped decorative wefts	Coloured weft interlacing	Coloured pile yarns tied as knots
Thickness	Usually thicker than a basic kilim	Generally lighter and flatter	Varies according to pile and foundation
Reversible	Usually not fully reversible	Many traditional examples are reversible	Not reversible
Common materials	Wool, sometimes cotton or other fibres in the foundation	Wool, cotton and other fibres	Wool, silk, cotton and combinations

Why is Soumak thicker than a traditional kilim?

The wrapped supplementary weft creates a more substantial structure.

In a traditional kilim, coloured wefts are interlaced across the warp to produce a relatively flat surface.

In Soumak, the decorative yarn wraps around the warp threads, creating additional thickness and a raised, textured appearance.

The exposed weft floats on the reverse also contribute to its characteristic feel.

Is Soumak more durable than kilim?

Soumak is often regarded as a robust flatweave because of its wrapped construction and thicker surface.

However, durability depends on the yarn, density, quality of the foundation, workmanship and condition. It would be inaccurate to claim that every Soumak is more durable than every kilim.

A well-made example of either technique can be long-lasting when used and cared for appropriately.

Where Are Soumak Rugs Made?

Soumak is not restricted to one city or one country. It is a weaving technique that has been adopted by different communities across several regions.

Its geographical history is particularly associated with the Caucasus and Persia, while examples and related traditions are found in Anatolia and Afghanistan as well.

1. Shemakha and Shirvan — Azerbaijan

The historic Shirvan region of the Caucasus is one of the most recognised areas associated with Soumak weaving.

Shemakha, also written as Shamakhi, is often linked to the name Soumak itself.

The wider region developed a strong tradition of patterned carpets and flatwoven textiles. Designs commonly feature geometric arrangements, hooked motifs, diamonds and stylised animals.

The Kuba or Quba area of Azerbaijan is also associated with documented Soumak production. Historical examples attributed to Lezghi or Azerbaijani weaving communities demonstrate the regional variety of the technique.

2. Northwestern Iran — Shahsevan communities

Soumak weaving is particularly associated with Shahsevan textiles in northwestern Iran and neighbouring Azerbaijan.

The Shahsevan were historically Turkic nomadic communities whose weaving traditions included saddlebags, bedding bags and other portable household textiles.

The Mughan plain and the broader areas around the Caspian and Transcaucasian regions are important in understanding their historical weaving culture.

These textiles were not necessarily made in a single urban workshop. Production was associated with communities and their traditional weaving practices.

3. Western Iran — Bakhtiari communities

The Bakhtiari people, associated with the Zagros Mountains in western Iran, have a rich textile tradition.

Their work includes pile carpets, flatweaves and functional household textiles.

Soumak wrapping appears in historical Bakhtiari storage bags, flour bags and other pieces, sometimes combined with plain weaving or knotted pile in areas requiring additional reinforcement.

This demonstrates that Soumak was not limited to one geographical or social tradition within Iran.

4. Afghanistan — Taimani and other tribal weaving traditions

Afghanistan has a broad range of handmade pile and flatwoven textile traditions.

Soumak kilims associated with Afghan tribal communities may feature geometric medallions, boteh motifs and repeated designs in colours such as crimson, indigo, ivory and natural wool tones.

The Taimani tradition is particularly relevant to RugWeave's collection. Taimani Soumak kilims are associated with the tribe's bold geometric design vocabulary and distinctive weft-wrapping technique.

Other Afghan pieces may be associated with different communities and regional design traditions. They should not all be treated as belonging to one uniform Afghan Soumak style.

5. Anatolia — Turkey

Soumak's history also connects with Anatolia, the region of present-day Turkey.

Archaeological evidence from Gordion, near Ankara, demonstrates that weft-wrapping techniques were known in ancient Anatolia.

Turkey's wider textile heritage includes kilims, pile carpets and a variety of flatwoven constructions.

The historical evidence from Gordion is especially important because it places the technique within a much older history of textile experimentation than the familiar antique rug market alone might suggest.

A note about cities and weaving communities

Unlike a city carpet tradition such as Tabriz or Kashan, Soumak is primarily identified by its method of construction.

A Soumak may be associated with Shemakha, Shirvan, Quba, northwestern Iran or an Afghan tribal community, but the technique itself is not restricted to one city.

Some examples were made by nomadic or village communities on looms used within their own settlements or encampments. Others came through more organised regional production and trade.

The place name attached to an individual Soumak should therefore be supported by its design, structure, materials and history.

Materials Used in Soumak Rugs

Wool

Wool is the most familiar material in traditional Soumak textiles.

It is used for the decorative wrapping yarn and often for the warp. Handspun wool can create subtle irregularities that add to the character of the surface.

Its strength and flexibility make it suitable for producing the tightly wrapped structure.

Cotton

Cotton may be used in the foundation or ground weft, depending on the textile.

The ground weft supports the decorative wrapping and contributes to the stability of the structure.

Some historical textiles combine wool for the warp and Soumak weft with cotton for the ground weft.

Goat hair and other fibres

Certain historical tribal textiles also incorporate goat hair, particularly in practical objects and reinforced sections.

The combination of different fibres reflects the material resources available to the weaving community and the intended purpose of the textile.

Natural dyes

Many traditional Soumak textiles are associated with rich colours produced using natural dyes.

Madder-based reds, indigo blues and other botanical or mineral colourants have been important in historical textile traditions.

However, not every Soumak uses natural dyes. Dye identification requires closer examination and, where necessary, technical analysis. Colour alone is not sufficient evidence.

A Closer Look at Soumak Rugs in the RugWeave Collection

Our Kilim Caravan collection includes several examples that demonstrate how varied this weaving technique can be across regional traditions.