Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs: The Great Persian Carpets of the Export Era – History, Craftsmanship and Persian Weaving

by Zeeshan Tariq November 11, 2026

Imagine a large Persian carpet spread across the floor of a grand European residence in the late nineteenth century. Its field is filled with sweeping floral vines, oversized palmettes and beautifully balanced geometric elements. The colours are softer than those found in many traditional Persian carpets: muted terracotta, dusty rose, sage green, ivory and faded blue. The design has room to breathe, and its scale transforms the entire space.

This is the world of Sultanabad and Mahal rugs.

Among the most important Persian carpets associated with the nineteenth-century export trade, Sultanabad and Mahal pieces represent a fascinating meeting of traditional Persian craftsmanship and international commercial influence.

Their history is closely connected with Arak in west-central Iran, the surrounding village weaving communities and the activities of European trading companies, particularly Ziegler & Co.

What makes these carpets especially interesting is that they were not simply traditional Persian designs sold to a new audience. The export market influenced the way they were designed, the sizes in which they were produced, the colours selected and the organisation of the weaving industry itself.

At RugWeave, we believe understanding this history is essential to appreciating these carpets. Their beauty lies not only in their large floral compositions and rich wool, but also in the story of how Persian weaving adapted to a changing world.

What Are Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs?

Sultanabad and Mahal rugs are Persian hand-knotted carpets associated with the historic weaving region around the city of Sultanabad, now known as Arak, in Markazi Province, west-central Iran.

They are particularly recognised for their large-scale designs, relatively open compositions, floral ornamentation and generous proportions.

Unlike some finer Persian city carpets, which may feature extremely intricate patterns and densely packed motifs, Sultanabad and Mahal carpets often use larger decorative elements. This creates a more spacious visual composition, allowing the design to be appreciated across an entire room.

Traditional characteristics frequently include:

Large floral motifs and sweeping vines.
Oversized palmettes and rosettes.
Central medallions or all-over repeating designs.
Warm terracotta, rust, rose, ivory and muted blue palettes.
Wool pile on a cotton foundation.
Hand-knotted construction, commonly using the Persian knot.
Large dimensions suited to spacious interiors.

Although the names Sultanabad and Mahal are often used together in the carpet trade, they are not necessarily interchangeable in every historical or commercial context.

Sultanabad refers to the historic city and the wider weaving district.

Mahal is a related regional and trade designation associated with carpets from the same broader area. Its usage has varied, and it is sometimes applied to carpets considered more commercial or coarser in construction.

Ziegler refers specifically to carpets connected with the historical enterprise of Ziegler & Co., which organised production in the Sultanabad region for export markets.

Understanding these distinctions is important when buying or collecting these carpets.

The History of Sultanabad Rugs

1. Sultanabad: A Carpet Centre in West-Central Persia

The history of Sultanabad carpets is closely connected with the development of the city of Sultanabad, present-day Arak.

The city was established in the early nineteenth century and developed into an important administrative and commercial centre in central Persia.

Its location was significant. It connected several established weaving districts and stood along important trade routes linking Tehran, Hamadan and Kermanshah with other parts of Persia.

The surrounding area already possessed a strong tradition of carpet weaving. Production took place across towns, villages and rural communities, with local households contributing to the manufacture of carpets.

The region's weaving tradition did not begin with European involvement. Rather, the growing international trade would eventually transform an existing industry into one of Persia's most important export-oriented carpet production centres.

2. The Arrival of Ziegler & Co.

One of the most important chapters in Sultanabad's history began with the involvement of Ziegler & Co., a Manchester-based trading firm.

The company became involved in the Persian carpet trade during the second half of the nineteenth century and established its important Sultanabad agency around 1877–1882.

Its involvement was particularly significant because it helped organise carpet manufacture on a much larger scale.

Rather than simply purchasing carpets that happened to be available in local markets, Ziegler developed a system through which production could be coordinated to meet the requirements of international buyers.

The company worked with local agents, designers, dyers and weaving households. Raw materials, dyed wool and design patterns were supplied through this network, while financial advances helped support production.

The finished carpets were collected and brought to the company's Sultanabad premises for inspection before being prepared for export.

By 1894, the organisation's production network had expanded to include approximately 111 villages around Sultanabad.

This was an extraordinary development in the history of Persian carpet production.

It demonstrated how a traditional cottage industry could be coordinated through a much larger commercial network without abandoning handmade production.

3. Why Were Sultanabad Rugs Made for the Western Market?

The growing popularity of Oriental carpets in Europe and America created a demand for carpets that were different from many traditional Persian household and ceremonial pieces.

Western homes increasingly required large carpets that could cover substantial floor areas beneath furniture.

Ziegler & Co. recognised this demand and worked with Persian artisans to adapt established designs.

Several changes became particularly important:

Larger dimensions: Carpets were increasingly produced in formats suited to European and American rooms.

More open compositions: Motifs were often enlarged, with greater space between individual flowers and decorative elements.

Softer colours: Palettes were adapted to suit Western furnishing preferences, including muted reds, greens, ivories, blues and earthy tones.

Adapted designs: Classical Persian floral motifs were reinterpreted to create carpets that retained traditional character while appealing to an international audience.

Organised production: Local weaving households worked through networks of merchants and agents, using supplied materials and design plans.

The result was a distinctive family of carpets that combined Persian weaving skills with a new approach to interior decoration.

4. The Ziegler Sultanabad Tradition

The term Ziegler Sultanabad became associated with some of the most recognisable Persian export carpets of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

These carpets were generally known for their large dimensions, spacious floral designs and harmonious colours.

Their patterns often drew upon established Persian design traditions, including palmettes, vines, rosettes, Herati elements and medallion compositions.

The designs were not necessarily simpler because the weavers lacked skill. Their larger scale and more open arrangements were deliberate responses to the intended market.

Ziegler production therefore represents an important moment in Persian carpet history: the adaptation of a traditional craft to international design preferences.

It also established a visual language that would continue to influence later handmade carpets.

5. The Development of Mahal Rugs

Mahal carpets belong to the same broader carpet-making environment of west-central Persia.

The name is associated with the Mahal area and appears in the carpet trade as a regional designation for carpets related to the Sultanabad tradition.

Historically, the terminology has not always been used consistently.

Some descriptions distinguish finer Sultanabad and Ziegler examples from more broadly produced or coarser Mahal carpets. Others use the names with considerable overlap.

For this reason, it is better not to treat Mahal as one precisely defined quality grade.

A Mahal carpet should be assessed through its actual construction, design, materials, period and provenance rather than relying solely on the name.

6. The International Success of Sultanabad and Mahal Carpets

By the late nineteenth century, Sultanabad carpets were being exported in substantial quantities.

Their large-scale designs and softer colour palettes appealed to buyers who wanted traditional Oriental carpets suited to contemporary European and American interiors.

The success of the export trade encouraged other European companies to become involved in Persian carpet production.

The industry expanded through a combination of local investment, foreign commercial capital, village weaving networks and organised workshops.

Production was not without its challenges. Changes in international demand, competition, economic downturns and the introduction of synthetic dyes all affected the Persian carpet industry.

Nevertheless, Sultanabad and Mahal carpets established a lasting reputation.

Their designs continue to be admired today, particularly by collectors and interior designers who appreciate their balance between traditional Persian ornament and spacious decorative composition.

What Makes Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs Distinctive?

1. Large-scale floral compositions

One of the most recognisable features of these carpets is their generous floral drawing.

Instead of using hundreds of tiny motifs packed closely together, many Sultanabad carpets feature larger flowers, palmettes and flowing vines.

This creates a composition that can be appreciated from across a room.

The floral elements are often arranged in an all-over pattern, allowing the eye to move naturally across the field.

2. Open fields and decorative spacing

The open field is an important characteristic of many export-era Sultanabad designs.

The motifs are given sufficient space to stand out individually, rather than filling every available section of the carpet.

This approach creates a more relaxed decorative effect and was particularly suited to the large carpet formats requested by Western buyers.

Not every Sultanabad follows this formula. Some have denser floral fields, lattice arrangements or central medallions.

3. Palmettes and scrolling vines

Palmettes are among the most familiar motifs in Persian carpet design.

They are stylised floral forms, often arranged along curving stems or combined with smaller blossoms and leaves.

In Sultanabad carpets, large palmettes can create a dramatic rhythm across the field.

Their outlines may be relatively bold, while the interior details introduce smaller floral elements.

The resulting design balances scale with decorative intricacy.

4. Rich yet restrained colour palettes

Sultanabad carpets are often admired for their sophisticated colours.

Common shades include:

Muted terracotta.
Dusty rose.
Soft rust.
Sage and olive green.
Ivory and cream.
Muted gold.
Powder blue and faded indigo.
Deep red and navy accents.

The use of softer colours was particularly important in the export era, when the carpets were designed to complement Western furniture and interiors.

However, not all historical Sultanabad carpets are pale or muted. Richer reds, blues and more saturated colours also appear.

5. Large-format carpets

One of the defining characteristics of the export-era Sultanabad tradition was its emphasis on generous dimensions.

European and American interiors increasingly required room-sized carpets.

Historical export orders included standard dimensions suited to Western rooms, including approximately 8 × 10 feet and 9 × 12 feet, alongside smaller and considerably larger pieces.

This demand influenced both the way carpets were designed and how their production was organised.

How Are Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs Made?

Traditional Sultanabad and Mahal carpets are hand-knotted pile rugs.

Their construction uses the familiar combination of warp, weft and pile, although individual examples vary in density, foundation materials and finishing.

Step 1: Preparing the wool

Wool is the principal pile material in traditional Sultanabad and Mahal carpets.

The wool is cleaned, prepared and spun into yarn suitable for weaving.

The quality and character of the wool influence the carpet's texture, flexibility, colour and durability.

Many regional examples are associated with good-quality Persian wool, which provides a substantial pile and a natural lustre.

Step 2: Preparing the foundation

The foundation generally consists of warp and weft threads.

Warp: The lengthwise threads stretched across the loom.

Weft: The horizontal threads passed through the warp to secure the rows of knots.

Cotton is commonly used in the foundation of Sultanabad and Mahal carpets, although variations occur in historical village production.

The foundation provides the structural support for the pile and determines much of the carpet's stability.

Step 3: Setting up the loom

The warp threads are stretched onto a loom and maintained under tension.

In the historical export era, weaving took place in a combination of village households, cottage-industry settings and more organised workshops.

The loom and working arrangements depended on the particular production setting.

Ziegler's system was especially interesting because the company coordinated production across many village households rather than relying entirely on one central factory.

Step 4: Following the design

Designers prepared patterns to guide the weavers.

These drawings incorporated established Persian motifs, often adapted to suit the dimensions and visual preferences of export buyers.

A large-scale floral design, for example, might require fewer repeated elements across a wider field than a densely patterned traditional carpet.

The weaver translated the design into rows of coloured knots.

Step 5: Tying the knots

Wool pile yarn is tied around the warp threads to create individual knots.

A row of knots is completed before the weft is passed through the foundation and beaten into place.

The process repeats until the carpet is finished.

The density of the knotting varies between examples. Sultanabad carpets are generally associated with a moderate rather than exceptionally fine city weave, which was suited to their large-scale designs.

This should not be mistaken for poor craftsmanship. The construction was selected to suit the design, material and intended format.

Step 6: Finishing the carpet

After weaving, the pile is clipped and the sides and ends are finished.

The carpet may then undergo washing and other finishing processes.

Historical carpets may subsequently have received repairs, cleaning or restoration.

For collectors, the quality of the finishing and the condition of the foundation are particularly important when evaluating an antique Sultanabad or Mahal.

Understanding the Knots Used in Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs

1. The Persian or Senneh knot

The asymmetrical Persian knot is commonly associated with Sultanabad and many related regional carpets.

In this construction, the pile yarn wraps around one warp thread and passes around or under the adjacent warp in a different way.

The knot can support the relatively open designs and flowing floral drawing characteristic of many Sultanabad rugs.

The term Senneh knot describes the structure of the knot. It does not mean the carpet originated in Senneh.

2. The Turkish or Ghiordes knot

The symmetrical Turkish knot wraps the pile yarn around both warp threads.

It is common in Turkish and several Caucasian weaving traditions, and it has also been recorded in historical carpets from different Persian regions.

Older descriptions of Sultanabad production sometimes mention both Ghiordes and Senneh knots.

Consequently, it would be inaccurate to claim that every Sultanabad or Mahal carpet must use the asymmetrical knot.

3. The importance of knot density

Sultanabad and Mahal rugs generally have a more moderate knot density than very fine Persian city carpets such as certain examples from Isfahan, Kashan or Qom.

This allowed the weavers to produce large carpets with broad, expressive motifs.

The design did not depend on extremely high knot counts to achieve its visual impact.

The important characteristics were the quality of the wool, the balance of the drawing, the strength of the foundation and the overall workmanship.

A lower knot density is not automatically a sign of inferior quality.

4. Warp and weft construction

Cotton is commonly used for the warp and weft in these carpets, with wool forming the pile.

The number and arrangement of weft passes can vary.

The foundation must be strong enough to support the carpet's dimensions and the tension created during weaving.

The structure also influences the feel and flexibility of the finished piece.

The precise construction of an antique rug should therefore be examined individually.

The Different Design Traditions of Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs

Although the two categories overlap, several recurring design families can be identified.

1. All-over floral designs

These carpets feature large flowers, leaves, vines and palmettes distributed across the entire field.

The composition may be relatively open, with motifs connected by sweeping stems.

This is one of the most characteristic design approaches associated with export-era Sultanabad carpets.

2. Medallion and corner designs

Some carpets feature a central medallion surrounded by corner elements, known as Lachak Toranj in Persian design terminology.

The medallion may be floral or geometric, while the surrounding field contains scrolling vines, palmettes and smaller flowers.

These designs retain a strong connection to classical Persian carpet traditions.

3. Trellis and lattice designs

Trellis compositions use intersecting vines or geometric lines to create a repeated network across the field.

Flowers and palmettes may appear within the individual sections.

This design vocabulary can create a particularly elegant all-over appearance.

4. Herati designs

Herati is one of the best-known repeating motifs in Persian weaving.

It generally combines a central floral rosette with surrounding curved leaves and smaller decorative elements.

The design appears across several Persian regions, including the broader Sultanabad weaving tradition.

5. Palmette and vine-scroll designs

Large palmettes and sweeping vines are particularly suitable for the spacious composition of Sultanabad carpets.

The designs may feature considerable variation in the size of the individual flowers and leaves, creating a decorative rhythm across the field.

6. Village and tribal-influenced designs

Not every carpet associated with the Sultanabad district followed the formal floral compositions of export workshops.

Some village-produced carpets incorporated more geometric motifs, simplified tribal elements and less formal arrangements.

These examples reflect the diversity of weaving communities across the wider Arak region.

Where Are Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs Made?

1. Sultanabad – Present-day Arak

Sultanabad is the historic name of the city now known as Arak.

It served as the principal commercial and organisational centre for the surrounding carpet-producing region.

The name Sultanabad became strongly associated with Persian carpets made in this district, particularly those produced for export in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

2. Mahal and the surrounding weaving district

Mahal is associated with the wider area around Sultanabad and appears in the historical carpet trade as a related regional designation.

The name is not always used consistently, and different cataloguing traditions distinguish Mahal and Sultanabad in different ways.

This is why identifying the precise origin of an individual carpet requires more than its commercial label.

3. Farahan and surrounding villages

Farahan is another important weaving area in the broader central Persian carpet landscape.

Its carpets are associated with their own distinct design and construction traditions.

Although Farahan, Sultanabad, Mahal and Sarouk may all appear in discussions of carpets from west-central Persia, they should not be treated as identical categories.

4. The village production network

One of the most important aspects of the export-era Sultanabad industry was the scale of village participation.

Ziegler's commercial network extended to numerous settlements surrounding Sultanabad.

Local agents supplied materials and patterns to weavers, organised production and collected completed carpets.

This meant that many carpets were woven in households rather than in one central urban workshop.

The resulting carpets could share a broad commercial identity while retaining differences in design, construction and workmanship.

Sultanabad, Mahal and Ziegler: What Is the Difference?

These three terms are closely related, but they describe different aspects of the carpet tradition.

Term	Meaning
Sultanabad	The historic city, now Arak, and the broader carpet-producing region associated with it.
Mahal	A related locality and carpet-trade designation within the wider region. Usage varies across catalogues and dealers.
Ziegler	The name associated with the historic trading firm that organised and commissioned export-oriented carpet production in Sultanabad.

A Ziegler rug is therefore connected to a particular commercial history, while Sultanabad and Mahal describe geographical or trade identities.

Not every Sultanabad carpet is a Ziegler, and not every Mahal carpet can be attributed to Ziegler & Co.

This distinction becomes particularly important when assessing antique carpets.

What Happened to the Sultanabad Tradition After the Export Era?

The early twentieth century brought substantial changes to the Persian carpet industry.

International demand fluctuated, new trading companies became involved in production, and the industry experienced the effects of economic downturns and political developments.

World War I disrupted production and international distribution.

After the war, export-oriented production resumed, with an increasing proportion directed towards the American market.

The historical Sultanabad identity nevertheless remained important in the international carpet trade.

Its large-scale floral designs and softened colour palettes continued to inspire later rugs.

Contemporary carpets inspired by this tradition are produced in different countries, including Afghanistan and Pakistan. They may use Persian-style floral compositions and export-era colour schemes while having their own geographical identity and construction characteristics.

A modern Afghan Ziegler, for example, is not an antique Persian Sultanabad carpet. It is a later interpretation of a design tradition that became internationally recognised through the Sultanabad export industry.

Sultanabad-Inspired Designs in the RugWeave Collection

While our current collection does not contain a product specifically identified as an antique Sultanabad or Mahal carpet, we have several Afghan Ziegler pieces that illustrate the continued influence of the export-era Persian design vocabulary.

These are Afghan carpets, not original Sultanabad or Mahal rugs. Their links are included as related design interpretations.

Sky Blue Tribal Afghan Ziegler Rug

The Sky Blue Tribal Afghan Ziegler Rug features a striking sky-blue field with geometric medallions and stylised floral motifs.

Hand-knotted from Ghazni wool, it combines burnt orange, crimson, ivory and navy within a composition influenced by Caucasian and Persian decorative traditions.

Its open layout and contrasting borders demonstrate how the broader Ziegler-inspired design language continues to evolve in contemporary Afghan weaving.

Olive Medallion Heritage Afghan Ziegler Rug

The Olive Medallion Heritage Afghan Ziegler Rug offers an earthy interpretation of the traditional medallion format.

Its olive-green field is complemented by coral, indigo, ivory and sky-blue details.

Hand-knotted using Ghazni wool and described as naturally dyed, it combines a bold central arrangement with layered floral and geometric borders.

Its earthy palette provides an interesting contemporary connection to the softer colour sensibilities associated with export-era Persian carpets.

Rust Tribal Medallion Afghan Ziegler Rug

The Rust Tribal Medallion Afghan Ziegler Rug has a warmer, more dramatic colour arrangement.

Its rust-toned field is decorated with central geometric medallions and detailed vinework in navy, ivory, crimson and golden ochre.

Made using handspun Ghazni wool, it demonstrates how Persian-inspired medallion designs can be reinterpreted through the artistic language of Afghan tribal weaving.

Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs in Contemporary Interiors

One reason these carpets continue to be admired is their ability to work beautifully in both traditional and contemporary spaces.

Their open designs and generous proportions are particularly suited to larger rooms.

A large Sultanabad with muted floral ornament can bring warmth and pattern to a contemporary living room without making the interior feel overly formal.

A richer Mahal carpet can work well with antique furniture, natural wood and architectural details.

The softer palettes associated with some export-era designs also make these carpets versatile.

They can complement neutral interiors, stone floors, natural materials and understated furniture.

For architects and interior designers, the value of a Sultanabad or Mahal often lies in its scale and the balance between pattern and empty space.

It is a carpet that can anchor an interior while allowing the surrounding architecture and furnishings to remain visible.

How to Choose a Sultanabad or Mahal Rug

When buying an antique or vintage carpet from this tradition, it is important to look beyond the name.

Establish the attribution. Ask whether the carpet is considered Sultanabad, Mahal or Ziegler, and what evidence supports the description.
Check the age. Distinguish genuine antique pieces from later reproductions or contemporary interpretations.
Examine the wool. Look for a good-quality pile with appropriate resilience and texture.
Understand the knotting. Examine the reverse to assess the knot structure and consistency.
Inspect the foundation. Check the warp, weft, edges and ends for structural problems.
Study the colours. Consider the original palette, fading, dye stability and any post-production treatments.
Look at the design. Examine the balance of floral motifs, medallions, borders and open field areas.
Assess repairs and restoration. Older carpets may have undergone repairs; their quality and extent should be disclosed.

The value of a Sultanabad or Mahal should be based on the individual carpet's workmanship, age, condition, design and provenance rather than a famous label alone.

Frequently Asked Questions About Sultanabad and Mahal Rugs

Where do Sultanabad rugs come from?

Sultanabad rugs come from the historic weaving region around Sultanabad, now called Arak, in west-central Iran. Production included the city and numerous surrounding villages.

What is the difference between Sultanabad and Mahal rugs?

Both terms are associated with the same broader Persian weaving region. Sultanabad refers to the historic city and its carpet tradition, while Mahal is a related regional and trade designation. The terminology overlaps and is not applied consistently across the trade.

What is a Ziegler Sultanabad rug?

A Ziegler Sultanabad is a Persian carpet associated with the production organised by Ziegler & Co. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These carpets were made for export markets and are known for spacious designs, large formats and carefully adapted colour palettes.

Which knot is used in Sultanabad rugs?

The asymmetrical Persian knot is commonly associated with Sultanabad carpets. Some historical descriptions also record symmetrical Turkish knots. Individual rugs should be examined rather than attributed by knot type alone.

What materials are used in Sultanabad and Mahal rugs?

Traditional examples generally feature wool pile on a cotton foundation. The precise materials and construction can vary according to the period and weaving community.

Why are Sultanabad carpets often so large?

Their large dimensions were influenced by demand from European and American buyers, who required carpets suitable for spacious Western interiors. Export production increasingly included standard room-size and oversized formats.

Are Mahal rugs always lower quality than Sultanabad rugs?

No. Some trade descriptions use Mahal for more commercial or coarser grades, but there is no universally applied quality hierarchy. Individual carpets must be assessed through their materials, weaving, design, condition and provenance.

Are Sultanabad rugs still made today?

The historic Persian export-era tradition is particularly associated with antique and vintage carpets. Contemporary rugs inspired by Sultanabad and Ziegler designs are produced in different countries. Their modern origin should be clearly distinguished from genuine historical Persian production.

What designs are common in Sultanabad and Mahal rugs?

Common designs include large floral compositions, palmettes, scrolling vines, central medallions, Herati patterns and lattice arrangements. The exact design depends on the individual carpet and its production tradition.

Are Ziegler rugs Persian rugs?

The original historical Ziegler carpets were woven in Persia, particularly through the Sultanabad production network. Today, the term Ziegler is also used for later carpets inspired by that design tradition, including Afghan production. The country and period of manufacture should always be established.

Sultanabad and Mahal: A Persian Tradition Shaped by Craft and Commerce

Sultanabad and Mahal rugs tell one of the most interesting stories in the history of Persian carpet weaving.

They represent a period when traditional Persian craftsmanship met the demands of an expanding international market. Village weavers, local merchants, designers and foreign trading firms became part of an organised production network that helped transform the carpet industry.

The resulting textiles were distinctive in their scale, floral designs, restrained colours and practical construction.

Their importance goes beyond decorative appeal. They demonstrate how a handmade tradition can adapt to changing lifestyles and international tastes without losing its connection to local craftsmanship.

At RugWeave, we believe a carpet should be understood through its complete story: its geographical origin, materials, weaving techniques, design and historical context.

A fine Sultanabad or Mahal is a wonderful example of this relationship between art and commerce. It is a traditional Persian carpet, but also a record of an important moment when the world began to discover Persian weaving on a much larger scale.